1.      Section 68—Claim for necessaries supplied to person incapable of contracting, or on his account

• Overview of Section 68
• Section 68 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, addresses claims for necessaries supplied to individuals who are incapable of entering into contracts. This includes minors, persons of unsound mind, and others disqualified from contracting by law. The key takeaway is that a person who provides necessaries is entitled to reimbursement from the property of the incapable individual.
• Scope of Persons Covered
• Incapable Individuals: This section applies primarily to:
• Minors: Following the Judicial Committee’s decision in Mohori Bibi v. Dharmodas Ghose (1903) 30 Cal 593; LR 30 IA 114, it is clear that minors fall under the ambit of this section.
• Persons of Unsound Mind: Individuals who are mentally incapacitated.
• Others Legally Disqualified: Such as wards under the U.P. Court of Wards Act.
• Definition of “Necessaries”
• General Definition: “Necessaries” refer to goods and services suited to the condition of the incapable person’s life.
• Legal Expenses: Costs incurred in successfully defending a minor’s property in a lawsuit are considered necessaries (Watkins v. Dhunnoo Baboo (1881) 7 Cal 140).
• Criminal Defense: Costs incurred for defending a minor in a prosecution for dacoity are also classified as necessaries (Sham Charan Mal v. Chowdhry Debya Singh (1894) 21 Cal 872).
• Emergency Loans: Loans given to minors to protect their property from execution are covered (Kidar Nath v. Ajudhia (1883) Punj Rec No. 185).
• Marriage Expenses: Money provided for Hindu minors’ marriage expenses qualifies as necessaries, recoverable from their property (Pathak Kali Charan v. Ram Deni Ram (1917) 2 Pat LJ 627).

• Special Considerations:
  • For a Muslim girl’s marriage, similar provisions apply, as seen in Rahima Bibi v. Sherfuddin (1947) Mad 541.
  • A distinction is drawn between male and female minors based on cultural norms and legal obligations, particularly after the enactment of the Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929, which deems child marriage an offence. Courts may not recognize expenses incurred for purposes forbidden by law as necessaries (Tikki Lal v. Komalchand (1940) Nag 632).

• Who Is Legally Bound to Support?
• The term “anyone whom he is legally bound to support” extends to relationships such as that of husband and wife, ensuring that necessary supplies can be claimed even in the context of familial obligations.
• Remedy and Nature of Claims
• Legal Remedy: Suppliers of necessaries are permitted to claim reimbursement only from the estate of the incapable person. They do not possess the right to initiate personal claims against the individual.
• This principle is well established in case law, emphasizing the distinction between claims against the property of the incapable person versus personal liability.

2.     Section 69—Reimbursement of person paying money due by another, in payment of which he is interested

·       General Principle

• Entitlement to Reimbursement: A person who is interested in the payment of money that another is legally bound to pay is entitled to reimbursement. This includes any payment made to protect one’s own interest.

·       Definition of “Interested”

• The term “interested in the payment of money” encompasses a broader range of situations than typically recognized in English common law. It includes any apprehension of loss or detriment capable of being quantified in monetary terms.
• English Common Law Limitation: Traditionally, English law recognizes claims for reimbursement only when there is an implied request from the party benefited (e.g., A can claim from C if A is compelled to pay damages that C is also liable for) .
• Lack of Common Obligation: Claims may not succeed where the plaintiff pays for the defendant’s benefit without a direct legal duty or obligation to do so. For example, in the case of Mansarovar Industries v. Ratan Lal, the original lessees, who remained liable for rent, could not recover from the mortgagees who benefited from the payment because no mutual obligation existed .

·       Conditions for Recovery

• Bona Fide Payments: Recovery is permitted only for payments made in good faith to protect one’s own interests. For instance, A cannot recover money paid to B to save property if the sale was fictitious . However, if the sale was legitimate, recovery is possible.
• Right to Recovery: A person can claim reimbursement if they had an interest in making the payment at the time it was made. For example, a mortgagee who pays government dues related to a tenant’s property to prevent attachment can recover those amounts from the mortgagor.
• Possession and Payment: Payments made to prevent the sale of property under a court decree, even if the decree is later reversed, can be recovered .

·       Legal Proprietary Interest

• The section does not require that a person must have a proprietary interest in the property for which the payment is made.
• In the situation where an Appellant Company paid outstanding taxes on mills to prevent municipal action, the payment was considered necessary for the Company to realize the benefits of its purchase .

·       Judicial Guidance

• In Ram Tuhul Singh v. Biseswar Lal, the Judicial Committee emphasized that not every benefit received from another’s payment creates an obligation to repay. An obligation to repay arises only if it can be established that there was an express or implied requirement to do so .

·       Definition of “Bound by Law”

• Legal Liability: The obligation for which reimbursement is sought need not be statutory; it can arise from any effective bond of law. However, the payment must be made to a party legally bound to pay.
• For example, in the case of a widow assessed for taxes based on a deceased’s estate, the court held that she could not recover taxes paid from the defendants since they were not legally liable.
• Hindu Law Implications: A Hindu father has no legal obligation to set up his minor daughter’s marriage, so expenses incurred by the mother for this purpose cannot be recovered from the father under this section .

·       Limitations on Recovery

• A purchaser of property who pays off an existing charge does so at their own risk and cannot recover from the original debtor . Similarly, a mortgagee who pays rent due prior to their purchase cannot seek reimbursement from the original tenant .
• Contracts and Obligations: The wording “bound by law” includes obligations arising from contracts or torts.

3.     Section 70—Obligation of person enjoying benefit of non-gratuitous act

·       Overview

• Obligation: This section outlines the duty of a person who benefits from a non-gratuitous act performed by another. The person who performs the act is entitled to compensation or the restoration of the thing done or delivered.
• “Non-Gratuitous”: Actions taken with the intention of being compensated.
• “Benefit”: Acceptance of the benefit does not need to be voluntary.
• Definition of Parties:

1. • “A person” refers to someone who supplies goods or renders services.
   • “Another person” includes individuals, governmental bodies, and municipalities.

• Benefit:

1. • A benefit arising from the government’s actions (e.g., a blanket license) cannot be attributed to the act of a plaintiff if not directly linked to the action.
   • Case Law: Plaintiff’s claim for restoration of benefit from the issuance of a blanket license was dismissed due to lack of direct benefit from their actions.

• Contrast with English Law:

1. • English common law requires acceptance of goods or services offered in a business context as evidence of an agreement to pay.
   • Under Section 70, a person restoring lost property may be entitled to compensation even without a reward being offered, deviating from the common law rule.

·       Judicial Caution

• Courts should apply the section judiciously to avoid endorsing officious interference—acts rendered without the recipient’s desire.
• In the government repairing a tank that benefited certain lands, the court found the government could recover costs from those benefitting from the repairs (defendants) based on the irrigable area.

·       Essential Conditions for Action under Section 70

• The act must be done lawfully.
• The actor must not intend to act gratuitously.
• The beneficiary must enjoy the benefit of the act.
• Case Law: In the Calcutta case regarding a mortgage, the plaintiff was entitled to contribution from co-sharers as he acted to protect his interest, which was not gratuitous.

·       Limitation of Application

• The section does not apply where an act is done at the express request of another, such as in attorney-client relationships.
• If a pleader is engaged by a client and no fee is fixed, the pleader is entitled to reasonable remuneration as implied by the request.

·       Instances of Gratuitous Acts

• Where a purchaser pays an amount to a mortgagee on behalf of vendors due to a delay caused by the vendors, such payment may be considered gratuitous if it exceeds the stipulated sum.
• Principle derived from various case laws: Vendors were not liable for interest payments made by purchasers to the mortgagee since it was not a stipulated obligation.

·       Quantum of Compensation

• Compensation may be determined at market rates for extra work done beyond the original contract.
• Principle derived from various case laws: A contractor seeking increased rates due to altered specifications was denied this claim since the contract’s terms governed the payments.

·       The Meaning of “Lawfully”

• The act must create a legal relationship that justifies seeking compensation.
• Payments made fraudulently or without lawful interest are not covered.
• Principle derived from various case laws: A tenant’s repairs made without landlord approval were not lawful, thus failing to invoke Section 70.

·       Incompetency to Contract

• The section does not apply to persons incapable of entering contracts; thus, no implied promise can be formed.

·       Contracts Required to be in Writing

• An oral contract that violates statutory requirements is void. However, if work is done and the benefit is received, compensation may still be owed under Section 70.
• Principle derived from various case laws: In a case involving government contracts, despite the lack of a written contract, the government was liable for work accepted under Section 70.

·       Implications of Contractual Relationships

• Claims for quantum meruit may be restricted in cases where a formal contract exists.
• Case Law: In MTNL, the Supreme Court indicated that compensation under Section 70 is not permissible where a contractual relationship governs the parties, unless the claim arises from work beyond the contract’s terms.

4.     Section 71—Responsibility of finder of goods

·       General Principles

• Finder of Goods: A person who finds goods belonging to another and takes them into custody is subject to the same responsibilities as a bailee.
• Responsibilities of a Finder:
• Duty to Find Owner: The finder must make reasonable efforts to locate the true owner of the goods.
• Duty of Care: The finder is required to take due care of the goods while they are in their custody.

·       Rights of the Finder

• Possession Against All but the True Owner: The finder has the right to possess the goods against everyone except the true owner.
• Lien: The finder is entitled to a lien over the goods, allowing them to retain possession until compensated by the owner for the care and custody of the goods. However, the finder cannot sue for this compensation unless there is a prior agreement (e.g., a reward offered by the owner).

·       Case Laws Illustrating Responsibilities

• Hollins v. Fowler (LR 7 HL 757): This case establishes that the finder of goods is liable to try to identify the true owner and to exercise care over the found goods.
• Newman v. Bourne & Hollingsworth (31 TLR 209): In this case, a customer left a brooch in a shop and the shop assistant found it but failed to exercise ordinary care, leading to its loss. The shop owner was held liable because they did not act with the ordinary care expected from a prudent person in safeguarding the goods.

·       Liability in Agency Context

• UOI v. Amar Singh (AIR 1960 SC 233): The case involved the transfer of goods via railways. It was determined that the railway became the immediate bailee of the goods upon their transfer. Thus, the forwarding railway (East Punjab Railway) was held liable for the loss of the goods since it failed to safeguard them effectively.
• Authority and Responsibility: The responsibility of the forwarding railway equates to that of a finder of goods under Section 71 of the Indian Contract Act. This ruling reinforces the principle that a bailee (in this case, the railway) must act with care to prevent loss.

·       Inapplicability of Responsibilities

• UOI v. Mohammad Khan (AIR 1959 Ori 103): In this case, the defendant cleared timber left on leased land without taking it into custody, resulting in its damage. The plaintiff’s claim under Section 71 was dismissed since the defendant had not assumed custody of the goods, highlighting that mere knowledge of goods is insufficient for liability as a bailee.

·       Rewards and Compensation

• Har Bhajan v. Har Charan (1925 All LJ 655): This case demonstrates that if the owner offers a reward for the return of goods, the finder can sue for that reward based on the acceptance of the offer.

5.     Section 72—Liability of person to whom money is paid, or thing delivered, by mistake or under coercion

·       General Principles:

• A person who receives money or anything delivered under mistake or coercion is obligated to repay or return it.
• This section addresses both mistakes of fact and mistakes of law.

·       Payment Under Mistake of Fact vs. Mistake of Law

• Common Law Rule: Money paid under a mistake of fact may be recovered if the supposed state of fact would have created a liability to pay that money, which is not actually due. Conversely, if the mistake does not create a legal obligation, the payment is considered voluntary and cannot be recovered.
• Cases:
• Aiken v. Short (Bramwell B’s dictum): Money paid can be recovered if the mistake concerns a fact that, if true, would create a liability; mere desirability does not suffice.
• Morgan v. Ashcroft: The plaintiff, a bookmaker, overpaid a client due to a clerical error. The Court of Appeal ruled that the bookmaker could not recover the excess payment because, even if the supposed fact had been true, he had no legal liability to pay it back due to the Gaming Act, 1845. Thus, the payment was deemed voluntary.
• Larner v. London County Council: In this case, an employee was overpaid based on a moral obligation rather than a legal one. The court ruled that the payments were not entirely gratuitous and could be reclaimed because the council was “in honour bound” to fulfill its promise.

·       Recoverability of Money Paid Under Mistake:

o   It is established that money paid under a mistake can be reclaimed even without fraud or misrepresentation.

o   Case: Dhrangadhra Municipality v. Dhrangadhra Chemical Works Ltd: The Gujarat High Court emphasized that a plaintiff must show that they would suffer legal injury if restitution is denied, particularly in tax cases.

·       Distinction Between Mistake of Law and Mistake of Fact

• Shiba Prasad v. Srish Chandra: Clarified that a mistake of law leading to a contract does not void the contract. Money paid under a valid contract cannot be claimed back merely because of a mistake of law. Section 72 applies only when payment was not legally due and was not enforceable.
• The court emphasized that merely because a mistake was made does not entitle the payer to restitution; circumstances surrounding each case must be considered.

·       Categories of Refund for Tax Payments

• In Mafatlal Industries, the Supreme Court categorized claims for tax refunds into:
• Illegal Levy: Collected based on incorrect interpretation of the law.
• Unconstitutional Levy: Tax levied under a law deemed unconstitutional.
• Mistake of Law: Based on a ruling in another case regarding illegal or unconstitutional levies.
• Only unconstitutional levies can be claimed under Section 72 through suit or writ petition. The claimant must also establish that they did not pass on the tax burden to consumers.

·       Defenses Against Recovery Claims

• Not all sums paid under mistake are recoverable; defenses may apply:

• • Change of Position: If the recipient’s situation changes due to the mistaken payment, requiring them to repay may be inequitable.
  • Case Reference: Metro Exporters: The bank mistakenly credited amounts to the exporter’s account, leading to unjust enrichment. However, due to changes in the exporter’s position, the claim under Section 72 was not maintainable.

·       Payment Not Under a Mistake: Payments made voluntarily with full knowledge of the facts do not constitute a mistake. This includes:

• • Payments made under a compromise of disputed claims.
  • Ignorance of law or deliberate disregard for it does not count as a mistake.

·       Coercion:

o   The term “coercion” is broadly defined and not limited to the definition in Section 15 of the Act.

• The Judicial Committee ruled that a party can reclaim payments made under coercion if they were forced to pay under duress (e.g., payment made to avoid legal process).
• Payments made to avoid prosecution for a non-compoundable offense can be recovered if made under pressure; however, no recovery is allowed if no coercion was involved.