Incorporation of Companies

Introduction

The incorporation of a company is a fundamental step in establishing a corporate entity. Under the Companies Act, 2013, the incorporation process is governed by Sections 3 to 22, detailing the legal formalities, essential documents, and procedural requirements necessary for a company to acquire a distinct legal identity. Incorporation grants a company the status of a separate legal entity, enabling it to own property, enter into contracts, and sue or be sued in its own name, as reaffirmed in Salomon v. Salomon & Co. Ltd. (1897) AC 22.
This note provides a comprehensive analysis of the incorporation process, including the formation of a company, essential documents, procedural requirements, statutory compliances, and key case laws that have shaped corporate jurisprudence in India.

Formation of a Company under the Companies Act, 2013

Meaning and Essentials of Incorporation
Incorporation is the process through which a company is legally brought into existence. Section 3 of the Companies Act, 2013, stipulates that a company may be formed for a lawful purpose by:
• One Person, in the case of a One Person Company (OPC)
• Two or more persons, in the case of a Private Company
• Seven or more persons, in the case of a Public Company
Once incorporated, a company becomes an artificial legal person distinct from its shareholders or promoters. This principle was first established in Salomon v. Salomon & Co. Ltd. (1897) and has since been upheld in numerous Indian cases, including Tata Engineering and Locomotive Co. Ltd. v. State of Bihar (1964), where the Supreme Court reiterated that an incorporated company has a distinct legal identity.

Key Documents for Incorporation

1. Memorandum of Association (MoA) – Section 4
The Memorandum of Association (MoA) is a fundamental document that defines the company’s constitution and objectives. Section 4 of the Act prescribes the essential clauses of the MoA, which include:
• Name Clause – Specifies the company’s name, ending with “Limited” for public companies and “Private Limited” for private companies.
• Registered Office Clause – Indicates the state in which the company’s registered office will be located.
• Object Clause – Defines the purpose for which the company is formed. Any activity beyond this clause is considered ultra vires (beyond authority) and thus invalid, as established in Ashbury Railway Carriage & Iron Co. v. Riche (1875).
• Liability Clause – Specifies whether the liability of members is limited or unlimited.
• Capital Clause – Defines the authorized share capital of the company.
• Subscription Clause – Lists the names of the initial subscribers and the number of shares they have agreed to take.
2. Articles of Association (AoA) – Section 5
The Articles of Association (AoA) is another crucial document governing the internal management and operational rules of the company. Under Section 5, companies are required to draft their AoA, which includes:
• Procedures for share transfers
• Rules regarding director appointments
• Voting rights of members
• Dividend distribution policies
A company’s AoA must not contradict its MoA. Any conflict between the two will be resolved in favor of the MoA, as upheld in Shri Digvijay Cement Co. Ltd. v. Union of India (1993).

Incorporation Process – Sections 7 to 12

Step 1: Digital Signature Certificate (DSC) and Director Identification Number (DIN)
To facilitate electronic filing, company directors and subscribers must obtain a Digital Signature Certificate (DSC) and a Director Identification Number (DIN), as mandated under Section 152(3).
Step 2: Name Approval – Section 4(4) and Rule 9 of the Companies (Incorporation) Rules, 2014
The proposed name must be unique and comply with the naming guidelines prescribed by the Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA). The application for name approval is filed through RUN (Reserve Unique Name) or SPICe+ (Simplified Proforma for Incorporating Company Electronically).
Case Law: In S. Narayanaswami v. Registrar of Companies (1966), the Supreme Court held that a company name should not be identical or deceptively similar to an existing registered entity.
Step 3: Filing Incorporation Documents – Section 7
Once the name is approved, the incorporation application is filed with the Registrar of Companies (ROC), along with:
• MoA and AoA
• Declaration of compliance (Form INC-9)
• Consent of directors (DIR-2 Form)
• Proof of registered office address (INC-22)
Step 4: Certificate of Incorporation (COI) – Section 7(2)
Upon successful verification of documents, the ROC issues a Certificate of Incorporation, which serves as conclusive evidence of the company’s existence. This principle was reaffirmed in Moosa Goolam Ariff v. Ebrahim Goolam Ariff (1913), where the Privy Council held that once a company is incorporated, its existence cannot be questioned.
Step 5: Commencement of Business – Section 10A
As per Section 10A, companies must file a declaration of commencement of business within 180 days of incorporation. Failure to do so can result in penalties and potential striking off of the company’s name from the register.

Statutory Compliance Post-Incorporation

Once a company is incorporated, it must adhere to several statutory compliances to ensure smooth operations and regulatory compliance under the Companies Act, 2013. One of the primary obligations is maintaining proper books of accounts as mandated by Section 128, ensuring accurate financial records are kept at the registered office. Failure to do so can lead to penalties and legal consequences.
Additionally, as per Section 139(6), the company must appoint its first auditor within 30 days of incorporation. If the Board of Directors fails to do so, the shareholders must appoint an auditor within 90 days at an Extraordinary General Meeting (EGM).
Further, Section 173(1) requires the company to hold its first Board Meeting within 30 days of incorporation. This meeting is crucial for approving preliminary resolutions, such as bank account opening and operational strategies.
Lastly, the company must obtain a Tax Deduction and Collection Account Number (TAN) and a Goods and Services Tax Identification Number (GSTIN) to comply with taxation laws and ensure smooth financial transactions. These statutory requirements help maintain transparency and regulatory compliance, preventing legal disputes and operational setbacks.

Judicial Precedents on Incorporation and Legal Personality

The doctrine of separate legal personality is fundamental to company law, and various judicial precedents have reinforced this principle.
In the landmark case of Salomon v. Salomon & Co. Ltd. (1897) AC 22, the House of Lords established that a company is a distinct legal entity separate from its shareholders and directors. Mr. Salomon had formed a company and transferred his business to it, holding the majority of shares. When the company went into liquidation, creditors sought to hold him personally liable. However, the court ruled that since the company was legally incorporated, it had a separate existence, and its debts were not the personal liability of its shareholders. This decision laid the foundation for modern corporate law and has been consistently applied in Indian jurisprudence, including in State of Uttar Pradesh v. Renusagar Power Co. (1988) AIR 1737, affirming corporate autonomy.
Similarly, in Lee v. Lee’s Air Farming Ltd. (1961) AC 12, the Privy Council extended the separate legal personality doctrine by recognizing that a company can employ its own directors. Mr. Lee, the sole shareholder, was also the director and pilot of his company. When he died in an accident, his wife claimed worker’s compensation. The court upheld that since the company was a distinct entity, Lee was legally an employee, thus reinforcing the corporate veil doctrine.
The Indian judiciary further refined the corporate veil concept in Vodafone International Holdings v. Union of India (2012) 6 SCC 613. The Supreme Court ruled that foreign holding companies cannot be taxed in India solely because their subsidiaries operate in the country. The judgment distinguished between legal incorporation and economic substance, emphasizing that a company’s jurisdiction of incorporation determines its tax liability, not its operational presence.
These precedents collectively affirm the independent corporate personality doctrine, ensuring that companies enjoy autonomy while preventing unwarranted liability extensions to their shareholders.

Conclusion

The incorporation of a company is a meticulous legal process governed by statutory provisions, judicial precedents, and regulatory frameworks. The Companies Act, 2013, provides a structured mechanism to ensure that companies are established in compliance with the law, thereby promoting corporate transparency and investor confidence.
Understanding the significance of MoA, AoA, incorporation procedures, and post-registration compliances is crucial for ensuring the smooth operation of corporate entities. The judicial precedents discussed reaffirm the principle of separate legal personality and the obligations associated with corporate governance. Thus, incorporation is not just a formal legal act, but a critical foundation for ensuring the stability, credibility, and regulatory compliance of businesses in India.

Reference

Taxmann’s Company Law and Practice