Introduction

The Articles of Association (AoA) is a crucial document in company law that defines the internal rules and regulations governing a company’s management. Along with the Memorandum of Association (MoA), the AoA serves as the company’s constitutional document, providing detailed guidelines for decision-making, administration, and shareholder rights.
While the MoA outlines the company’s objectives and fundamental structure, the AoA governs its daily operations and the relationship between shareholders, directors, and management. The provisions of the AoA must align with the Companies Act, 2013, and cannot override statutory requirements.
The legal foundation for the Articles of Association is established under Section 5 of the Companies Act, 2013, which mandates that every company must have an AoA defining its internal governance structure.

Legal Framework Governing AoA

Definition and Nature of Articles of Association (AoA)
The Articles of Association (AoA) are a crucial document that governs the internal management and administration of a company. According to Section 2(5) of the Companies Act, 2013, the AoA refers to:
“The regulations for management of a company framed in accordance with the provisions of this Act and include amendments thereto.”
The AoA functions as a contract between:
1. The company and its members, regulating their rights and obligations.
2. Members inter se, ensuring adherence to agreed governance rules.
3. The company and its directors, defining their roles, powers, and responsibilities.
The AoA is subordinate to the Memorandum of Association (MoA), meaning any provision in the AoA that contradicts the MoA or the Companies Act, 2013, is deemed void.
Case Law: Ashbury Railway Carriage and Iron Co. Ltd. v. Riche (1875) LR 7 HL 653
This case established the doctrine of ultra vires, holding that any act beyond the scope of the MoA (and by extension, the AoA) is void and cannot be enforced. This principle ensures that companies operate within their legally defined objectives and prevent directors from misusing their authority.

Contents of the Articles of Association

The Articles of Association (AoA) serve as the internal regulatory framework governing a company’s administration, management, and governance. It provides detailed rules for various corporate functions and must comply with the Companies Act, 2013 and the company’s Memorandum of Association (MoA). The key contents of the AoA include:
1. Share Capital and Variation of Rights
The AoA defines the company’s share capital structure, specifying:
• The total authorized share capital of the company.
• The types of shares issued, such as equity shares and preference shares.
• The rights attached to different classes of shares.
As per Section 48 of the Companies Act, 2013, a company cannot alter shareholder rights without the approval of at least 75% of the affected shareholders. Any such alteration must be in accordance with the AoA.
2. Calls on Shares
A company may issue partly paid shares, requiring shareholders to pay amounts in installments. The AoA outlines:
• The procedure for making calls on unpaid shares.
• The timeline and notice requirements for such payments.
• The consequences of non-payment, including forfeiture of shares.
Failure to pay calls on shares may result in penalties, including the loss of voting rights and dividends.
3. Transfer and Transmission of Shares
The AoA lays down rules for transfer and transmission of shares, particularly in private companies, where share transfers are restricted.
• Transfer of Shares: As per Section 56 of the Companies Act, 2013, any restriction on share transfer must be explicitly stated in the AoA.
• Transmission of Shares: This occurs in case of death, insolvency, or incapacity of a shareholder. The legal heirs or nominees inherit the shares, subject to compliance with AoA provisions.
Case Law: V.B. Rangaraj v. V.B. Gopalakrishnan (1992) SCC 627
The Supreme Court of India held that any restriction on share transfer must be expressly mentioned in the AoA. Any separate agreement restricting share transfer (if not incorporated in the AoA) cannot be enforced against the company.
4. General Meetings and Voting Rights
The AoA specifies provisions regarding Annual General Meetings (AGMs) and Extraordinary General Meetings (EGMs) under Sections 96-100 of the Companies Act, 2013.
• AGMs are mandatory for public companies to discuss financial statements, dividends, and board appointments.
• EGMs are convened for urgent matters requiring shareholder approval.
The AoA also outlines voting rights, including:
• Ordinary and special resolutions.
• Proxy voting rules.
• Quorum requirements for valid meetings.
5. Appointment and Powers of Directors
The appointment, removal, and powers of directors are governed by Sections 152-160 of the Companies Act. The AoA outlines:
• The number of directors and their tenure.
• Powers and duties of directors, such as borrowing funds, issuing shares, and declaring dividends.
Case Law: Shaw & Sons Ltd. v. Shaw (1935) 2 KB 113
The court held that directors derive their powers from the AoA, and shareholders cannot interfere unless the AoA allows it.
6. Dividends and Reserves
The AoA provides rules for dividend declaration and distribution under Section 123 of the Companies Act. It includes:
• Eligibility of shareholders to receive dividends.
• The procedure for dividend declaration by the Board of Directors.
• Creation of reserves for future contingencies, reinvestments, or legal requirements.
7. Winding Up Procedures
The AoA outlines the procedures for voluntary and compulsory winding up under Sections 270-365 of the Companies Act. It governs:
• The process for liquidating company assets.
• Distribution of proceeds among creditors and shareholders.
• Legal formalities involved in dissolution.
Thus, the AoA plays a crucial role in defining the governance structure of a company, ensuring compliance with statutory provisions while granting operational flexibility.

Binding Nature of the AoA

The Articles of Association (AoA) serve as a contractual framework between a company and its members, governing their rights and obligations. Section 10 of the Companies Act, 2013, explicitly establishes that the AoA, once registered, binds both the company and its members as though it had been personally signed by each member. This means that every shareholder must adhere to the AoA’s provisions, and the company itself is bound by its terms in dealings with its members.
One of the fundamental principles of the AoA’s binding nature is that it regulates internal affairs, ensuring that neither the company nor its members can act contrary to its provisions. Additionally, the company cannot override the AoA in internal disputes, and alterations must comply with legal requirements. However, third parties who are not members or directors cannot rely on the AoA for claims against the company.
The landmark case of Hickman v. Kent or Romney Marsh Sheep-Breeders’ Association (1915) established that a member can enforce rights granted under the AoA, but cannot claim rights beyond its scope. In this case, the court ruled that an association’s internal rules were binding on members but could not be enforced by an outsider. This precedent reinforces that the AoA creates obligations only within the corporate structure and does not extend to external parties.
Thus, the binding nature of the AoA ensures corporate governance, protects shareholder rights, and provides a legal framework for managing the company’s affairs efficiently.
Alteration of the Articles of Association
The Articles of Association (AoA) serve as the internal regulatory framework of a company, and their alteration is governed by Section 14 of the Companies Act, 2013. Under this provision, a company has the authority to modify its AoA by passing a special resolution in a general meeting of shareholders. However, such alterations must adhere to specific legal and procedural limitations to ensure fairness and compliance with corporate governance principles.

Legal Requirements for Alteration

1. The alteration must not contradict the provisions of the Memorandum of Association (MoA) or the Companies Act, 2013.
2. If required, the company must obtain approvals from creditors, debenture holders, or regulatory authorities, such as the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) or the Central Government.
3. The alteration must not be fraudulent, oppressive, or unfair to a section of shareholders.

Restrictions on Alteration

While companies enjoy flexibility in modifying their AoA, certain restrictions apply:
1. A public company cannot convert into a private company without Central Government approval (as per Section 14(1)).
2. Any alteration that violates minority shareholder rights or goes against public interest may be deemed invalid by courts.
3. Alterations made for an ulterior motive, such as entrenching power within a particular group of shareholders, may be struck down.
Punt v. Symons & Co. Ltd. (1903)
In this case, the company attempted to amend its AoA to issue shares in a manner that would prevent a takeover by another shareholder. The court ruled the alteration invalid, stating that the power to alter the AoA cannot be exercised for an improper purpose.
Thus, while altering the AoA is a key corporate right, it must be exercised in good faith, within legal boundaries, and in the best interest of all shareholders.

Difference Between MoA and AoA

Basis Memorandum of Association (MoA) Articles of Association (AoA)
Definition Defines the company’s objectives and scope. Governs the internal management of the company.
Legal Position Mandatory for all companies. Mandatory for all companies except those using Table F of Schedule I.
Contents Contains six mandatory clauses (Name, Registered Office, Object, Liability, Capital, Association). Contains rules for administration, management, and shareholder rights.
Amendment Process Requires Central Government approval for changes in certain clauses (e.g., Object Clause). Can be altered through special resolution of shareholders.
Binding Effect Binds company and members but does not govern internal rules. Binds company, members, and directors in daily operations.
Model Articles of Association Under Schedule I
The Companies Act, 2013 provides model articles for different types of companies under Schedule I:
• Table F: Model AoA for companies limited by shares.
• Table G: Model AoA for companies limited by guarantee (without share capital).
• Table H: Model AoA for companies limited by guarantee (with share capital).
• Table I: Model AoA for unlimited companies (without share capital).
• Table J: Model AoA for unlimited companies (with share capital).
A company may adopt the model AoA or draft its own, provided it complies with the Companies Act, 2013.

Conclusion

The Articles of Association plays a vital role in corporate governance by establishing internal rules and ensuring efficient administration. It functions as a contract between the company and its members, defining their rights, obligations, and decision-making powers.
While a company has the flexibility to alter its AoA, such changes must align with statutory requirements and protect shareholder interests. The AoA ensures corporate transparency, prevents misuse of authority, and provides clarity in management processes.
Understanding the Articles of Association is essential for lawyers, company secretaries, directors, and shareholders to ensure legal compliance and corporate integrity.

Reference

Taxmann’s Company Law and Practice